Table 2 Preventive strategies to reduce the use of antimicrobials during the post-weaning period

Control of housing environment and improved biosecurity

Very effective approach

Significant cost

[28, 30]

Significantly reduces PWD occurrence

Extreme weather conditions in some countries

Reduces the use of antimicrobials in farm

Acceptability of farmers to change some management techniques

Sustainable approach

Financial support is required

Diet management (reducing the amount of soybean)

Reduces the severity and frequency of PWD and oedema disease

Growth retardation

[31]

Increase production

Reduction of histological changes in intestinal crypt and villi

Considerable controversy between studies

Communicative advisory tools for pig farmers

Improving breeding management

Requires a lot of field work

[94]

Farmers feel concerned by the problem of antibiotic resistance

Farmers worried mostly about infectious diseases and financial issues

Raised awareness and responsibility

Financial bonus is required

Laboratory diagnosis to confirm etiology of PWD

Avoid the use of antimicrobials to treat viral diarrhea

Significant cost

[95]

Allows an appropriate choice for antibiotics

Lack of rapid diagnostic techniques

Policy measures

Reduce the sale and the use of antimicrobials on farm

Requires penalties

[94]

Reduce self-medication

Financial bonus is required

Immunoprophylaxis: Live attenuated and live wild type avirulent E. coli

Specific protection against ETEC: F4 or F18

Interference with the lactogenic immunity of piglets

[97]

Easy to administer on farms (drinking water)

Absence of cross-protection between F18ab strains

Reduces antimicrobial use in the PW period

Limited availability in some countries

Marketed in swine

Immunoprophylaxis: Subunit vaccines (purified F4 fimbriae)

A powerful oral immunogen

The proposed immunization procedure required large quantities of F4

[8]

Leads to a specific mucosal immune response

Antigen degraded by the pH of the stomach and by digestive enzymes

Leads to a significant reduction in fecal excretion of ETEC: F4

Usually required mucosal adjuvant such as Cholera toxin

Breeding of resistant pigs

Very effective approach

Expensive process

[2]

Greatly reduces the total amount of antimicrobials used on farms

Lack of techniques for a large-scale selection

Reduces the selection pressure

Development of other adherence mechanisms